Georgian Manuscripts By Helen Machavariani Old Georgian manuscripts occupy a special place in the treasury of the Georgian national culture. History, travels, dictionaries, hagiography, Church law, phylosophy, this short list shows the variety of the ancient Georgian manuscripts. The study of the Georgian culture by means of the Georgian written language monuments can be traced back onl y to the V century. These samples of the written language have survived as epigraphical monuments (made on stone and mosaic) and manuscripts (palimpsest). The ancient Georgian manuscripts also give us a rich material to study the development of decoration of manuscripts. The V-VI centuries' palimpsests are not only the most important monuments of the old Christian literature but they also illustrate the well developed book making art. Making of an ancient manuscript book consisting of successive interconnected processes (processing of the parchment, rewriting, painting of the text's pages, decoration of the manuscript by the engraved frame work, etc.) required a certain division of labour, participation of different skilful specially trained workers. In ancient Georgia great attention was paid to the decoration of manuscripts of books, beautiful fulfilment of the manuscript itself. One can affirm that the painters were highly skilful in decorating the manuscripts. The examples of Georgian illustrated books are by no means second to the monuments of architecture, fresco painting, wood carving. Such unique specimen of decoration of Georgian manuscripts as Four Gospels from Adishi, Gelati, Jruchi, Alaverdi, Lapscaldi, Mokvi, lenashi and others could be named along with the outstanding monuments of Mtskheta's Jvari, temples of Tsromi, Svetitskoveli, Temple of Bagrati in Kutaisi, frescoes of Atheni, Betania, Kintsvisi or chasings of Khakhuli icon, religious procession crosses from Ishkhani and Martvili. The specimens of ancient Georgian manuscript decorations presented in this book are taken from the manuscripts the main parts of which are kept in the K. Kekelidze Institute of Manuscripts of Academy of Sciences of the Georgia. Also some examples of the Adishi and Ienashi manuscripts from the Mestian (Svaneti) museum of local lore are shown, as well as the XIII century manuscript from Echmiadzin. In medieval Georgia monasteries being both religious and cultural-educatianal centres were of great importance for the development of the artistic decoration of manuscripts. A great number of books was made, translated, rewritten and ornamented in the monasteries which were many in Georgia (Gelati, Oshki, Tbeti, Opiza, David-Gareja, Mokvi, Shio-Mgvime, etc.). No less importance had Georgian monasteries situated abroad: on Black (Admirable) mountain near Anthioch in Syria, Iberian monastery in Athos, monastery of the Holy Cross near Jerusalem and others. Most of the illustrated manuscript books are of ecclesiastic content as psalters, synaxarium, triodium, the Four Gospels. However there are some secular works as well, e. g. the manuscript of the Astronomical treatise (A-65), XII cent,, manuscripts of original and translated poems and novels: ''The Knight in the Tiger's Skin", "Joseph Zilikhaniani", "Visramiani", "Rostomiani", "Kilila and Damana", "Shahnameh", etc. We could also name some miniatures of secular content in the ecclesiastic works, such as the composition "Spring" from the manuscript "Works of Gregory the Theologian") A-109, a great number of battle scenes from "Tetrosani" H-75 and psalm books H-1665, etc. There are three stages of development of alphadet in Georgian manuscripts: asomtavruli (majuscule), nuskhuri (minuscule) and mkhedruli (civil). The nuskhuri script was used since the IX century while early monuments of the civil writing belong to the XI century. Chronological consistency of study of the monuments from the graphical point of view has shown that transition from one stage of writing to another, due to the tendency towards cursive writing, is gradual. If we follow the changes of the graphical contours of separate letters through the centuries, we can notice their regular development. Many of Georgian manuscript books are richly decorated while in some of them only the initial letters are painted. The manuscript book has a certain repertoire of decoration. These are ornamental elements and miniature compositions as well. Elements of ornamental design are presented as headpieces, colophons, canons, and capital letters, while miniatures present small pictures showing either separate figures of men, animals, different subjects or whole plot compositions. Ancient Georgian manuscripts of the X-XIII centuries contain terms denoting some elements of ornamentation: images of the evangelists are presented by the term "khati" (icon). Decorative framing of the Four Gospels' canons had a horseshoe shape, therefore the whole canon got the name of the architectural term "kamara" (arch). The artistic initial letters are called "asomtavruli" because in the course of many centuries the letters of the asomtavruli writing were used to decorate the texts written in the "nuskhuri'' and "mkhedruli" script. In the monuments of that period an artist is called "mtserali" (scribe). The painter of the First Four Gospels from Jruchi who is the author of the canons and pictures in the ornamental arches is called the "kamar scribe'' and the painter of the Four Gospels from Vani calls himself the Golden- scribe. In the postscript of the XIV century manuscript A-575 along with the terms denoting processes necessary to make a manuscript book we come across a special term "art" which means the art of decoration. In the period from the V to the XVIII centuries the ornamentation of Georgian manuscript books passed through several stages of development and each of them is characterised by fixed artistic and stylistic features. In the V-VI cent, palimpsests(H89) the manuscript pages are left without ornaments, nevertheless, their artistic effect is great. The subtle feeling for beauty characteristic for the creators of Georgian manuscript books becomes apparent already on this early stage of development of Georgian book-making art. Such artistic methods as distribution of the text on the page in two columns, choice of the colour of ink, beautiful letters, showing of separate parts of the text by means of initial letters - enlarged capital letters written beyond the limits of the vertical line of the column of the text on the margins, became later the basis of the art of ornamentation of Georgian manuscript books. The certain beauty of the text is reached by the graphical contours of the asomtavruli type itself. The even, rythmical distribution of the monumental, massive, calm letters written in the two-lines net combination of round and vertical letter produce the impression of static, well-composed ornamental lines. Epigraphical monument, the early samples of the asomtavruli writing, were made on such principles. The writing of the Bolnisi Sion, Palestine mosaic, Mtskheta's Jvari are organically perceived in the artistic ensemble of the buildings as an element of ornamentation. The letters on the parchment have softer outlines than the letters of the strict epigraphical writings. Extremely fine horizontal and arched lines are linked with the thick vertical lines made with pressure of the pen. The brown ink of the text acquires some golden tinge due to the light movements of the pen and .is naturally combined with the yellowish colour of the parchment. The severe simplicity inherent in the early manuscripts remains for several centuries. The so called "Hanmetian lectionary" (the VII cent.), the Codex Sinaiticus (864) and early samples of illustrated manuscripts have their text pages without decorations, while great attention was paid to the writing itself, to the beautiful type of the big "asomtavruli" letters. Eventually, the scribes begin to use cinnabar, the letters become decorative bearing some elements of ornamentation, manuscripts are decorated with the plot compositions. In the IX-X cent, manuscripts were written with a brilliant painting technique. These are the Four Gospels from Adishi, Jruchi, etc. The high artistic qualities give us the right to think of the existence of more earlier Georgian monuments of this kind. In the process of creation of Georgian manuscript books we could point out two trends of artistic development: graphical and painting. The first one (the songs of Michael Modrekili, Synaxarium of Jibisdze, Astronomical treatise, Ienashi's, Urbnisis' Four Gospels) is characterized by tender, soft colours, considering the tinge of the parchment in the whole colouristic gamut. Special attention is paid to the graphical aspect - thin contours without gold and painted in water colours. As to the trend of the second type (Gelati, the Second Djruchi , Lapskaldi, and Vani Four Gospels, Synaxarium of Ekvthime Mtatsmideli) the painting methods of many layers (their colour is altered by paints mixed with whiting) are used here; the paints are intensive, opaque. Gold oven the cinnabar foundation outlines each detail. The ornamental picture sometimes reminds of cloisonné enamel. These two directions of artistic development existed simultaneously for many centuries. Decoration of the IX-X cent, manuscripts (from Adishi, Jruchi, Berta) was not yet limited by the norms of medieval art. This creative liberty could be seen in the artistic aspect of manuscripts, in iconography, in the artistic style. The Ellinistic art was reflected in the imitation of marble columns, Corinthian and ionic capitals, acanthus leaves, nudes in the compositions of healing with the background of the parchment, lightness in painting folds of clothes together with the softest combinations of colours. The Four Gospels of the IX-X centuries show the evangelists standing with the codes in their hands; very often they were painted in pair. Christ and John are shown young. Headpieces in the manuscripts are of a stripe-shape, while the so called canons present arched frames supported by columns. Among the decorated manuscripts the Four Gospels stand out by their specific ornamentations. Location of some elements of decorum depends on the text, therefore the succession of distribution in the ornamentation of the Four Gospels is almost fixed. Painters followed this principle for many years but working at separate decorative elements they altered them by their own discretion. A great variety of ornamental motives and compositions is as characteristic for the ancient Georgian manuscript books as for the architectural decorum, chasing, frescoes. From the XI century decoration of Georgian manuscript Four Gospels acquires full artistic form both in the combination of the ornamentation elements and in their distribution in the text: in the beginning of the manuscript, after Eusebius's letter, canons are given. The evangelists are painted before each Gospel. The first pages of the Gospels have headpieces, each stanza begins with a capital letter. In rich manuscripts the text is also illustrated. In some Gospels the additional gala compositions are "Deesis'' (Gelati's, the second Jruchi's four Gospels) or the cross (Alaverdi Gospel, the XI cent. Gospels S-962, H-1741, Tviberi's Gospel). As early as in the XI century the decorative style of medieval art becomes established. Some elements of decorum become well finished: headpieces become either (-shaped or rectangular, the canons supported by the decorative columns also become rectangular. Iconographical norms are also fixed. Christ and Saint John are painted with beards and moustaches. The evangelists are shown at the writing tables and each of them is characterized by individual iconographical peculiarities. Among the illustrated manuscripts of the XI century Ekvthime Mtatsmideli's synaxarium can be noted: The manuscript has preserved only 78 miniatures showing the Saints and the scenes from the life of Christ. The miniatures stand out for their top-quality fulfilment. In the end of Alaverdi Four Gospels the Letter of Augar to Christ is placed. The message is magnificent not only for its perfection of fulfilment, but it is unique from the viewpoint of decoration. The brief text is richly decorated with miniatures and artistic initials. All the main tendencies which were weak in the X century become well established in the XI century. In the XII century all these achievements were repeated, the decoration became richer and more solemn. The XII century is presented by a group of manuscripts which are unique by their artistic properties, incomparable painting methods and colours (Gospels from Gelati, Jruchi, Vani, Works of Gregory the Theologian, Astronomical treatise). Many of them were illustrated. In Georgian manuscripts we find miniatures showing basic episodes of the plot; sometimes the illustrations are of narrative nature. The narration is sometimes presented by a series of miniatures on one page, e. g. in "Kilila and Damana'' (Institute of Oriental study, Leningrad) the plot is illustrated in detail by 36 miniatures. The Gospel from Mokvi illustrates Christ's ancestors' genealogy (from Adam to the Holy Virgin) by 42 miniatures. Gelati's and the Second Jruchi's Gospels show successively the scenes of Christ's life (359 miniatures in the Second Jruchi's Gospel and 244 miniatures in Gelati's Gospel. Several artists took part in painting miniatures in the rich manuscripts and this can be seen both in the manner of writing and in the peculiarities of the colours. Among the manuscripts of the given period the Works of Gregory the Theologian, A-109, are especially prominent for their miniatures, whose monumentality is somewhat similar to that of mural paintings. The figures are freely distributed on a large, leaf. Mountain landscape or architectural constructions are presented without framings. The figures are calm, simple and monumental. A striking graphical skill is seen in the pictures of the signs of the Zodiak in the well-known Astronomical treatise, A-65.. The signs over ornamental lines are made in beautiful brown contours with the lines of pale red colour which increases plasticity and expressiveness of the picture. Ornamentation in the manuscripts of this period is heavy. Headpieces become square, the text becomes minimal; bases and capitals of canons are decorated with the images of human beings, animals or birds. In the Four Gospels from Gelati angels support the antablement, the scenes from the Bible are encircled by small medallions. In the XI-XII cent, manuscripts the composition of a decorative page is characterized by a classical clearness. This is caused by the fact that some elements of decorum, canons or headpieces in the general artistic ensemble are separated from each other. Gold in the combination of colours increases the decorative effect. Painters of this period present space conventionally by means of golden background. Gold in miniatures covers the space round the picture. We know only one case where miniatures were made on gold (the Gospel from Mokvi, 1300), the colouristic aspect is special here; gold is combined with, the pearl blue, wine red and green colours). In the manuscripts with more painting golden contour outlines each ornamental detail, gold is used to finish furniture, clothes, sometimes in the case where the form requires lightening, painter covers gold by touches (the Second Jruchi's, Vani's Gospel) or presents folds of the clothes by means of beamlike lines (Synaxarium of Ekvthime Mtatsmideli). The gold is still gloaming and clear now. In this aspect the miniatures of Gelati's Gospel particularly stand out. Gold is especially clear and contrasting on the background of the Devil's figure which is painted as a light black silhouette in the scene of temptation of Christ. In the XIII century artists leaked for new forms in the decoration. A whole decorative system was created; complex ornamental variations and dynamical compositions appeared. In the manuscripts of the XIII century (A-138, A-922, A-496, A-26, the Four Gospels from Ienashi) we note tendencies not only towards breaking of the decorative frames but towards entering of the ornament into the text. The initial letter is more complex, it becomes longer along the vertical column of the text. Decorative framing of miniatures is often connected with the composition characters or architecture: some details break the frame limits and fill the empty space of the pages. The classical limitation of disposition of figures is changed by their free, dynamical distribution (e. g., cf. the composition of " Kiss of Judas" in the Gelati manuscript, and the Mokvi manuscript, 1300; in the former all the figures are connected with the centre while in the latter the figures move in the direction opposite to the centre). In the case of artistic decoration of manuscript pages capital letters occupy an important position. We have already mentioned the capital type "asomtavruli". The initial letters of Georgian manuscripts also develop by stages from monumental to decorative style, gradually acquiring a full artistic form. Till the X cent, contours of capital letters looked like the text's letters: they were written by ink and were the same as asomtavruli, only a bit larger: the capital letters repeat all the features inherent in the graphical type "asomtavruli". Stylization of the capital letter at first takes place in the IX century. Appearance of elements of decorum in the manuscript book and in epigraphies almost coincides in time, and decorative outlines in both cases are also similar. In the general ornamental pattern of artistic initial letter the theme of stylized plants prevails, however, sometimes the contours are created by presentation of animals and birds. But regardless of the richness and complexity of decoration of the capital letter, the contours of the letter itself are always clearly seen. Some manusripts of the XI-XII centuries had been written in Georgian monasteries abroad where Georgian monks worked together with foreign monks and this fact enabled them to learn the Byzantine book-making methods and experience of miniature painting. Since the ecclesiastic literature was translated from Greek, the decorated original works served as examples and their decorum was used in the translations of the manuscripts. We know some cases when illustrated manuscripts were ordered in Constantinople: in the XI century Zakharia of Valashkerti ordered several manuscripts; in the XII century Queen Tamar ordered to a Greek master Michael Korresius Vani Four Gospels. In the X century Bishop Samuel ordered for Tbeti's Gospel images of the evangelists and canons (The Gospel is now kept in the Saltykov-Shchedrin, Library, St. Petersburg). As the books were portable, the manuscripts made by Byzantine artists or ornamented like those made by Byzantine artists were quite popular in Georgia. The fact certainly influenced the nature of decoration of Georgian manuscripts, the authors of which mastered the fine appearance and some motives of the Byzantine book-making art. The so called Vani Four Gospels, for instance, were imitated in Georgia and two manuscripts were written: Lapskaldi's Four Gospels and the XIII century Four Gospels kept now in Echmiadzin. The authors of the manuscripts specifically altered the Byzantine examples and used certain features characteristic for ornamentation of Georgian manuscript books. The author of Lapskaldi manuscript changed the succession of distribution of the months' symbols according to the system of Georgian calendar of that period. It should be noted that while rewriting the books the authors combined old and new, foreign and local. Therefore, it is very important to pick out and study the specific features of each manuscript, to compare the Georgian copies with the originals, to find common and different features seen in iconography and style, in the pattern of the ornaments, in the colours and methods of painting. For many centuries Georgian scribes did a lot to save individual typical national traditions of Georgian manuscript-making art (Four Gospels from lenaschi, from Pitsunda, Largvisi A-28. four Gospels A-496, "Tetrosani" H-75, psalm book H-1665, "The Knight in the Tiger's Skin" rewritten by Tavakarashvili, H-599, Visramiani S-3792, "Kilila and Damana''.) Even in the period of heavy historical crises the creative work of Georgian artists didn't stop. It would be enough to say that such outstanding manuscripts as the Four Gospels from Mokvi (1300) and Shio-Mgvime (130t) were made in the time of the rule of the Mongols. This striving to maintain old national traditions is well seen also in bilingual Georgian-Persian documents of the 17th century where we don't see the decorated borders characteristic for Persian documents and manuscripts, the small sizes oi Persian documents are not always kept to; on the contrary, imitating ancient Georgian documents with long introductions the authors made the new documents in the form 01 rolls; the decorative ornamentation of documents contained presentation of the cross, even in the papers of the kings who had accepted Mohammedanism (King Rostom's Hd-1350 and king Archil's Ad-1837). In king Archil's papers the big medallion contains the composition of the Holy Trinity. It is known that ornamentation of books reflected the relation to the frescoes painting, partly to architecture and sculpture (poistures of the evangelists are painted by the motives of antique orators' and philosophers' sculptures; buildings on the background present ancient theatres and other architectural constructions). Miniatures bear a lot of historically and ethnographicaly interesting points. Clothes, utensils, furniture very often reflect everyday life and tastes of the society. Thus, miniatures from "Tetrosani" H-75 and psalm-book H-1665, being valuable from the artistic point 46 of view are interesting for the study of social and cultural life of Georgia. Battle scenes based on the Bible' themes are interpreted as secular compositions. Here we see the weapons, kings' and feudals' clothes, various regalia. In Georgian manuscripts we often meet pictures of historical persons, of those who ordered the manuscripts, of the authors. Their clothes are also interesting as well as the clothes painted on frescoes, and icons. The ornaments use the motives of real life. Some initial letters could be used as examples of daily life genre (Gelati, the Second Jruchi, Mokvi, Shio-Mgvime Four Gospels, etc). Even in the decorum of the Four Gospels secular motives are used: in the Four Gospels from Lapskaldi the bases and capitals of arches are decorated by symbolically presented months. It is quite possible that in order to create ornamental patterns the authors sometimes turned to the motives used in embroidery. And it is quite natural that the author of the Four Gospels from Ienashi compared the ornamental pattern of the initial letter with embroidery. In the postscript the modest artist who doesn't dare to praise his own work expresses however the hope that it will be properly appreciated. Among the illustrated secular works the manuscripts of "The Knight in the Tiger's Skin" occupy an important place. We have only two leaves of the text of the XVI century, and some lines of the poem belong to the XIV-XV cent, which we have now as postscripts on the pages of manuscripts and on the walls of churches. All other lists of the poem belong to the XVII century. In the ornamentations of manuscripts of the XVII century one can notice the influence of Persian miniature paintings which was due to political situation of Georgia experiencing Persian influence in the life of upper classes of society. However, it should be noted that in a number of manuscripts ("The Knight in the Tiger's Skin" rewritten by Tavakarashvili, "Visramiani" S-3702, "Kilila and Damana" ) the authors show their own typical manner of writing or presentation of the content of composition. In the manuscript of "The Knight in the Tiger's Skin" belonging to King Giorgi XI, the artistic borders and the text are made on a whole leaf as a contrast to Persian manuscripts, and the golden ornamentations on each page are quite different by their pattern. The richness of manuscript books depended on the wealth of those who ordered them. The rich Four Gospels from Adishi had been made by the order of Sophron, the Father Superior of the Shatberdi Monastery; Ienashi Gospel was ordered by Catholicos Epiphany, the XII century Vani Gospel is connected with the name of Queen Tamar, while the XIII century Lapskaldi Gospel with the name of King David-Narin; the artistic border of Shota Rustaveli's poem "The Knight in the Tiger's Skin", H-54, XVII century, were ordered by king Giorgi XI. Postscripts of the scribes of Georgian manuscript books very often contain interesting remarks about clients about the place and the circumstances where the manuscript was written. We know many names of scribes but the names of miniature painters are rare. Along with the names of well known painters of frescoes, namely Damian who painted the Ubisi Church, Michael Maglakeli who painted the Matskhvarishi Church in Svaneti, "court painter" Theodore, who painted churches of Lagurka, Iprari and Nakipari in Svaneti, we can name some painters illustrators. And the name of the painter of the First Jruchi Four Gospels, Theodore, is read from the right to the left. It is difficult to read the name of Michael, the author of the Second Jruchi Four Gospels because it is written in tiny nuskhuri script in the ornamental pattern on Christ's throne. In one Four Gospels copy of the X century A-496 an ornamental line near the headpiece presents an inscription written in cinnabar by means of large stylized capital letters: painter Matthew. The artist and scribe of the richly decorated lenashi's Four Gospels of the XIII century (here only letter "D" ornamented 172 times), lona wrote his own name in the ornaments of headpiece in the tiny nuskhuri script. It is interesting to note that he calls himself "mokmedi". The same term can be seen in the inscription of Master Asat in the X century who made the cross of David Kuropalat. Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliany explained "mokmedi" as "creator". We could also name a number of artists of later period. These are Avgaroz Bandaisdze, Alexi Meskhishvili, Siaush and Jabadari who worked in Iran, David Tumanishvili, priest Alexi Bakradze, etc. Many of them were very skilled at calligraphy. Scribes-calligraphists played an important role in the development of artistic ornamentation of manuscript books. They distributed the columns of the text, chose ink, used cinnabar, found proper positions for ornaments and decorations for the plot compositions which were afterwards painted by artists. Close relation of decoration with the text often shows that rewriting and finishing of the text was made by one and the same person though it can't be seen by inscriptions (A-397, A-28, A-87, Q-902). Unique manuscripts had been mainly made on very good parchments and plate so had chased frameworks (manuscripts from Lapskaldi, Tbeti Q-929, Alaverdi, Ienashi, Gelati, Tskarostavi Q-907, Berti Q-906). Most of the framework had been made at the same time as the manuscripts were written. The frameworks of the Four Gospels from Tskarostavi and Berta were made by the well-known masters Beka and Beshken Opizari. Usually the chased frameworks of manuscripts present Crucifixion or Christ on the throne. Ienashi Gospel shows Catholicos Epiphany who ordered the manuscript. These compositions are combined with ornaments, precious stones or beautifully chased inscriptions. A small icon of cloisonné enamel fixed on the frame of Alaverdi manuscript presents St. George. The composition Plate 12 Crucifixion on the XIII century chased frame on the manuscript kept in Echmiadzin is also made of cloisonné enamel. This essay gives only some typical examples of ancient Georgian manuscript books. The number of manuscripts which exist nowadays is enormous and considering the number of books which were lost in the course of the past centuries, one could easily understand the valuable contribution of the Georgian scribes and artists. The history of manuscripts is one of the most brilliant pages in the whole history of the Georgian culture. Helen Machavariani